Why is Cross-Examination Still Critical in Internal Fraud Investigations?

Cross-Examination in Internal Fraud Investigations

Technology, authorised data access and artificial intelligence are more powerful than ever in criminal investigations. However, no matter how advanced they become, no digital trace can fully replace the human mind’s capacity to read and understand behaviour. Because every crime, including abuse, leaves both physical and psychological traces; and it is still humans who can read these traces.

New Authorised Data and the “Digital Illusion”

Today, investigators have access to extensive pools of “authorised data” such as log records, telephone data, camera footage, location information and corporate information systems. This offers a significant advantage, particularly in cases of white-collar fraud, cyber fraud and insider abuse.

Nevertheless, research shows that data alone does not tell the whole story. Even if digital traces relating to the same event are fixed, interpreting these traces, revealing contradictions and contextualising them still relies on well-structured interview and interrogation processes (Denault & Talwar, 2023; Williamson, 1993).

Why are interviews and questioning still essential?

In investigations, investigative interviewing (investigation-focused interviews) and ethical interrogation techniques conducted with suspects, witnesses, and victims are one of the fundamental tools that determine both information efficiency and the reliability of statements (May et al., 2025; Bull & Rachlew, 2020).

• Systematic studies, information -collection focused approaches, both more accurate information and more less false confessions produced shows (Catlin et al., 2024).
• Criminals’ views included in many studies, accusatory, accusatory, “confession extraction” aimed classic interrogation techniques, work unity reduced and justice mistakes ground prepared the ground reveals (Bull & Rachlew, 2020; Kelly et al., 2021).
• A comprehensive bibliometric analysis of 3,259 publications confirms the strategic importance of this process, demonstrating that investigative interviews remain one of the most researched and most in need of development areas within the justice system (Denault & Talwar, 2023).

In short, advanced data sources, human focused interviewing and questioning skills do not replace them, but rather makes it necessary to use them more wisely and effectively more efficiently.

The Interrogation Approach and Its Impact on the Truth–Falsehood Balance

A comprehensive systematic review dated 2024, different inquiry approaches correct and incorrect admission rates effect compared (Catlin et al., 2024):

• The information gathering approach yields significantly more genuine confessions than the traditional “direct questioning” method.
• Accusatory tactics, both simple interrogation and also information-gathering methods according to distinctly in a way more a12> more false confessions produced (Catlin et al., 2024).

These findings demonstrate that ethical and science-based inquiry techniques are indispensable not only from a human rights perspective but also in terms of evidence quality (Snook et al., 2020).

The Power of the Interview

Analysis of interviews conducted in prison settings revealed that productive, open-ended, cooperation-encouraging questioning techniques significantly increased suspects’ willingness to cooperate, be open and provide information, while accusatory, coercive approaches reduced it (Kelly et al., 2021). This demonstrates that the principle that “every contact leaves a trace” also applies to the language, style and body language used by the investigator.

Criminal Psychology and Profiling: The Art of Reading Traces

Forensic psychology and criminal profiling are disciplines developed to understand the behavioural patterns, personality traits, and motivations of offenders (Eze et al., 2025; Salfati, 2021). The subject of investigation is not only material evidence; it also includes psychological parameters such as the offender’s choices, level of risk-taking, need for control, lack of empathy, and anger regulation (Eze et al., 2025; , 0).

In complex crime ecosystems such as Turkey, profiling studies play a critical role in the following respects:

• Narrowing down the pool of suspects,
• The interview and interrogation strategy should be tailored to the individual’s cognitive level, psychopathology, and defence mechanisms (Sigurdardóttir et al., 2023; Erdélyi, 2023).
• Predicting factors such as the risk of reoffending, manipulative ability, and danger to oneself and others (Sigurdardóttir et al., 2023).

An analysis of forensic clinical psychologist reports within the UK’s National Crime Agency demonstrates that such expert contributions provide a high level of insight into understanding the perpetrator’s motivation, suggesting new lines of inquiry, and interrogation planning (Sigurdardóttir et al., 2023).

1Modus Operandi: Suçun İmzası ve Davranışsal Tutarlılık

Every type of abuse and crime manifests itself through a modus operandi chosen by the perpetrator. This includes elements such as victim selection, the scene of the crime, the methods used, concealment strategies, and escape plans.

A series of sexual offenders was the subject of a study conducted on, categorises the perpetrators’ behaviour into two main groups (Spytska, 2024):

• Impulsive, violent attackers and stalkers (high aggression, low planning)
• Perpetrators who plan in advance, often attack indoors, using manipulation and threats (lower impulsivity, higher control and sometimes sadistic motivation).

These behavioural classifications provide critical data for both profiling and interview strategies. For example, in an interrogation with a perpetrator exhibiting high impulsivity and low planning, cognitive loading, conflict detection, and chronology may be more effective; whereas with a planned and manipulative perpetrator, long-term consistency analysis and detailed questioning may be more effective (Canter & Youngs, 2009; Salfati, 2021).

Employment in the world of work misuse cases also in a similar manner as; the first “lost “, forged document scheme, business partners communication form up to every step, is part of the perpetrator’s behavioural signature .

Technology and Profile Where They Meet Place

Profiling of serial offenders has evolved from psychological approaches to data-driven and technology-supported systems. However, both historical analysis and current applications reveal that the combined use of psychological methodologies and technological tools yields the highest success rate (Bansal, 2025; Brooks & Hira, 2022).

While technology facilitates the discovery of patterns in massive data sets, it is still the human being’s clinical and investigative experience that distinguishes which patterns are meaningful and which are merely “noise” (Bansal, 2025).

The Message of the Research-Based Approach to Institutions

Thousands of studies covering the field of research give a few clear messages:

• Questioning and interviews, still require the highest time and labour investment but a11> most valuable evidence generating processes one (Myroshnychenko & Volobuiev, 2025).
• Ethical, science-based investigative interviewing demonstrates the greatest impact when supported by digital evidence and integrated with criminal psychology and MO analysis (May et al., 2025; Denault & Talwar, 2023; Bull & Rachlew, 2020; Salfati, 2021).
• Digital permissions and data capabilities should be used not to replace human-centred investigative skills, but to make them more sophisticated and targeted (Canter & Youngs, 2009; Brooks & Hira, 2022).

In conclusion

Every abuse, every exploitation, and every crime leaves traces in the perpetrator’s psychology, behaviour, and the sequence of events. A perfectly executed, “trace-free” abuse is a theoretical fantasy. In the real world, it is the well-trained investigators, forensic psychologists and human-centred interview–interrogation professionals who make a difference by being able to see and read these traces (Eze et al., 2025; May et al., 2025; Sigurdardóttir et al., 2023; Salfati, 2021; , 0).

Therefore, even in the new world of authorised data, human-centred investigation methods are not only critical but strategically indispensable.

Summary Table: Human Focused Methods’ Contribution

Figure 1: Human centred investigation techniques fundamental contributions areas summary

References

Eze, S., Alabi, K., Ibrahim, S., Yusuf, A., Hamzat, F., A, A., Atoyebi, A., Lawal, I., Oa, I., Ay, I., & Dare, B. (2025). Forensic Psychology and Criminal Profiling. Journal of Forensic Science and Research. https://doi.org/10.29328/journal.jfsr.1001085

May, L., Fahsing, I., Kelly, C., Barela, S., Milne, R., & Bull, R. (2025). What is investigative interviewing (and what is it not)? A primer on the ethos of suspect interviewing. Journal of Criminal Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1108/jcp-10-2024-0092

Bansal, S. (2025). Keywords: Serial Offender Profiling, Forensic Psychology, Technology Integration, Profiling Era Preferences, Familiarity, Perceived Effectiveness, Success Rates, Investigative Practices, Law Enforcement, Profiling Experts, Evolution.. International Journal For Multidisciplinary Research. https://doi.org/10.36948/ijfmr.2025.v07i01.32893

Denault, V., & Talwar, V. (2023). From criminal interrogations to investigative interviews: a bibliometric study. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1175856

Canter, D., & Youngs, D. (2009). Investigative Psychology: Offender Profiling and the Analysis of Criminal Action. **.

Sigurdardóttir, T., West, A., & Gudjonsson, G. (2023). The current role and contribution of ‘forensic clinical psychologists’ (FCPs) to criminal investigation in the United Kingdom. Journal of Criminal Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1108/jcp-07-2023-0043

Catlin, M., Wilson, D., Redlich, A., Bettens, T., Meissner, C., Bhatt, S., & Brandon, S. (2024). Interview and interrogation methods and their effects on true and false confessions: A systematic review update and extension. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 20. https://doi.org/10.1002/cl2.1441

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Myroshnychenko, Y., & Volobuiev, A. (2025). Interrogation in criminal proceedings: pre-trial investigation and trial. Uzhhorod National University Herald. Series: Law. https://doi.org/10.24144/2307-3322.2025.87.4.7

Kelly, C., Meehan, N., Mcclary, M., & Jenaway, E. (2021). Just a Normal Conversation: Investigative Interviews in a County Jail. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 48, 1166 – 1184. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854821993509

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Erdélyi, Á. (2023). Specific Criminal Profiling and Interrogation Techniques as Forensic Psychology Methods in Hungarian Law Enforcement. Magyar Rendészet. https://doi.org/10.32577/mr.2023.1.7

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Salfati, C. (2021). Investigative Psychology. The Cambridge Handbook of Forensic Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108848916.006

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